History of the English Language in India

History of the English Language in India INTRODUCTION This study aims at studying the language needs of under graduates students, revealing the discrepancies of different participants with respect to actual English language skills and target language skills and then suggest corrections in curriculum, wherever required. The study is conducted at Sant Gadge Baba University; Amravati, on students studying in under-graduate courses.This chapter presents information on the background and purpose of the study. Next, research questions are presented. Finally, definitions of some basic terms used in this study are presented. Background to the Study Global English World English is broadly categorised into three varieties: English as a Native Language (ENL), English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL). Accordingly, there are three geographical divisions of English speaking nations viz., ENL territories, ESL territories and EFL territories (Braj B. Kachru in Koul N. Omkar (eds.) 1992: 2 -3, cited in Hasan Kamrul Md,2004).1 ENL territories In countries like the UK, the USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, English is the first or often the only language of communication among the people. In ENL territories people use the mother tongue variety of English. ESL territories- In ESL situations English plays a vital role and is used to perform a variety of official, educational, and other roles. For ESL speakers, although English is not their native language but it is an important language in their professional and social lives. Like India, English is used as a second language in almost all the former British colonies (Singapore, Nigeria, South Africa etc.) Often the persons second language becomes the first functional language in adulthood in such cases. In ESL countries English is generally given importance in the educational framework of the nation and taught in schools and colleges. EFL territories In some countries English neither enjoys the status of native language nor second language. It is treated as foreign language and its use is restricted to occupational and educational purposes. In countries like China and Japan, English is taught and learnt mainly for reasons of trade and business and it does not play any role in social interactions. A historical sketch of ELT in India: Pre-colonial period Vasco da Gamas discovery of the sea route to India also paved way for the introduction of English in the sub-continent in 1498.However, it was only in the 18th century, when the Mughal Empire was on the decline and the English East India Company had secured a foothold in India that Indias tryst with the English language began. During this period, English was the language of communication of the elite people and was not the lingua franca of the people. Colonial period With the consolidation of the activities of the East India Company in eighteenth century, began the efforts of teaching English in the South Asian subcontinent. As far back as 1759, Christian missionaries entered India and the 1787 despatch welcomed the efforts of Rev. Swartz to establish schools for the teaching of English. Another significant effort was the publication of the first book, The Tutor, to teach English to the non-Europeans by author John Miller in 1797. This book was published in Serampore in Bengal. Thus the socio- historical stage for the role of English in education was set by the end of the 18th century. T.B. Macaulay, in the Minutes of 1835, for the first time, formally introduced the teaching of English in the South Asian subcontinent. In his Minutes he mentioned the importance and usefulness of the education that would be given to the natives through the medium of English. There were primarily two objectives of such education. The first was to create through this education a class of natives who, despite their blood and colour, would be English in culture and be able to interpret between the rulers and the subjects:à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern a class of persons, Indians in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinion, in morals and in intellect (quoted in Macaulay 1835, quoted in Thirumalai, 2003)2. The second was to create a demand for the European institutions. Although both the objectives were designed to serve the interest of the Masters, not of the subjects, but it provided the framework of formal English ed ucation to India which to a large extent is followed even today.. Thus by the middle of the nineteenth century the aims and objectives of teaching English were very clearly laid out For the remaining period of colonial rule there were a few landmarks in the development of English such as: The establishment of universities in Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai in 1857 and in Dhaka in 1920 Selective education and training in administration, imparted through English, the Indian University Act (1904) The Resolution on Educational Policy (1913). For the entire period of British rule four broad developments with regard to English education took place: 1600 -1800: During the early years the variety of English used was imitative and formal. It was the language of the rulers and the elite class. 1850 -1947: During the later years more varieties (from very high to very low) appeared. Indian intellectuals and freedom fighters effectively used English as tool to for political awakening and resurgence. Interaction with vernacular languages: As the use of English penetrated the different sections of the educated Indians, a new variety of English emerged. This variety of English had a very distinct Indian flavour and a number of words of vernacular origin were absorbed in English, e.g., Brahmin. Coolie, jungle, and so on. Methodology: Language studies were based on literature and grammar and the means of studies was the grammar-translation method. The spoken component of the language was not practised. The emphasis was given on correctness and complete sentence construction. English also played a critical role in Indias struggle for independence as it became the language of political awakening and resurgence. Even Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869-1948), although a strong advocator of use of national language, used English language effectively to put forth his message to the British Government . Post colonial period Post independence, the perception of English as having an alien power base changed. Kachru notes that English now has national and international functions that are both distinct and complementary. English has thus acquired a new power base and a new elitism (Kachru 1986, p. 12 as cited in Baldridge, 2002).3 For most part of the twentieth century, it remained a language used by a select few. English primarily remained the language of law and administration. The Present State Twentieth century witnessed great advancements in science and technology and this enabled many new ways of sharing information and doing business. Indias international commercial activities led to the need for acquiring proficiency in English as an international language. Now, English was not just the language of the administrators and policy makers but also became the language of the business and professional class. In India, the English speaking population is only about 3-4%, but with Indias massive population, India is among the top three countries in the world with the highest number of English speakers. In terms of numbers of English speakers, the Indian subcontinent ranks third in the world, after the USA and UK. Most English speakers in India are second language speakers, in 1971, it was estimated that the rate of bilingualism in India was 13% and 99% of English speakers are second-language speakers (Mahapatra 1990: 7 cited in Hohenthal , 2003).4 Spolsky points out that English is the most widely spoken second language, followed by Hindi. English is more useful as a lingua franca; the usefulness of Hindi as a lingua franca is regionally limited (Spolsky 1978: 42 cited in Hohenthal , 2003)5. The small segment of the English speaking population controls domains that have professional prestige (Kachru 1986a: 8 cited in Hohenthal , 2003)). It is this small segment of Indian population that hea ds Indias economic, industrial, professional, political, and social progress. Most interactions in the above spheres of life take place in English. In the linguistically plural settings of India, English often acts as the link -language among people of different dialect. For many educated Indians English is virtually the first language. Thus in the present context English is playing a vital role in bringing together people from different regional languages for a closer exchange of social, educational and administrative network of India . It provides a linguistic tool for the administrative cohesiveness of a country (Kachru 1986a: 8). English is used in both public and personal domains and its functions extend far beyond those normally associated with an outside language, including the instrumental, the regulative, the interpersonal and the innovative, self-expressive function (Hohenthal citing Kachru 1986a: 37, 2003))6. As pointed out before, the role of English is not replacive: it overlaps with local languages in certain domains (Kandiah citing Sridhar, 1985;Shridhar and Shridhar, 1986; 1991: 273)7. English language in Indian Education System English is taught as a second language at every stage of education in all states of India and has been accepted as the main medium of instruction in higher education. English is also the state language of two states in eastern India, Meghalaya and Nagaland. In India, English has become an integral part of the curriculum almost at all levels of education. However there are various social, political and cultural factors that affect the position of English in different boards, universities and other institutions. Even the curriculum offered and evaluation tools employed are very diverse across the country. The model of English offered to the learners lacks uniformity and it is this question that continues to challenge the policy makers and education planners. While most States accord English the position of second language, some others treat is as the third language; the regional language and the national language getting precedence. as in other linguistically and culturally pluralistic societies, the position of English is determined by various political, cultural and social considerations. Kachru (1986b:20 cited in Hohenthal , 2003)8 sees primarily three questions which continue to be discussed. The first question concerns the position of English in early and in higher education. The second question is concerned with the roles of the regional language, Hindi and English. The third question deals with the model of English presented to Indian learners, and how that presentation can be made uniformly and effectively. The Government of India has primarily been concerned with the first two questions, which are directly related to language planning at both the national and state levels. There are, as yet, no acceptable answers to any of these questions (Kachru 1986b:20 cited in Hohenthal , 2003).9 1.2 Language Teaching Context at Amravati University Established on 1st May, 1983, this University geographically covers the western Vidarbha belt (i.e., five districts Amravati, Akola, Yavatmal, Buldhana and Washim) of Maharashtra State. The University, in its small span of two and a half decades, has contributed in many ways for economic, social and cultural upliftment of the society by offering quality education. The Motto of this University is Education for Salvation of Soul The University is recognised under Section 12(B) of UGC   Act. The University is also an associate member of Association of Commonwealth Universities, London (U.K.) The University has 10 faculties which includes Arts, Commerce, Sciences, Medicine, Ayurved, Education, Social Science, Law, Home Science, Engineering Technology. The University has facilities to offer post-graduate advanced education in Computer, Biotechnology, Business Management, Law degree courses in Chemical-Technology. SGB,Amravati University University has been one of the foundation universities undergoing expansion and developments in the recent years. Although the University does not have an English Department to date, English courses are offered both at undergraduate and postgraduate levels in colleges affiliated to the University. All undergraduate programs offered by SGBAU are of three years except Engineering (B.E.) Evaluation tools used in order to assess the students performance are generally written exams stated to cover the course objectives moderately rather than fully. That is because listening and speaking skills are not evaluated although practiced during the classes. The exam is generally conducted once, at the end of the academic session. The nature of the written examination paper is largely theoretical. Thus, the results of this study will be an aid to the Curriculum Development Unit of English Board of Studiesof Amravati University (SGBAU)in deciding on the needs of the students and improving the already existing program to better meet the needs of those students. 1.3 Purpose of the Study? English has penetrated all functions and all sections of society. It is a universally accepted tool for communication. It is no longer restricted to the English or Americans as a means for communication. Even within India, with its diversity of languages, English has emerged as the accepted language of communication cross culturally. It has even overtaken Hindi, which is officially the national language, as far communication among people of different native languages is concerned. Although, from time to time, various political lobbies have raised the issue of prohibiting the use of English language, however, they have so far been unsuccessful. This is primarily the result of the accommodating quality of English . Moreover, most of the world communicates in English and if India has to be a part of the Global scenario, English language can be a major bridge. Looking at English language courses in sub metroplises, the fact that glaringly stands out is that little has been done to understand the special learning needs of students here and even lesser attention has been paid to prepare them to function effectively in their workplaces and academic environment. Students hailing from townships and rural areas suffer from geographic as well as cultural disadvantages. Their distance from the metros does not bring the exposure and environment which is naturally a part of the cosmopolitan work culture. Culturally as well, most students belong to families where native language is the means of communication and even in academic institutions the medium of instruction is primarily the local dialect. The prime purpose of this study was to understand the special needs of students who belong to non-metropolitan areas and then attempt to suggest how they can be optimally trained to perform academic and professional functions efficiently. Each of the skills which may be required, reading, writing, listening and speaking may be of different value in terms of their use in a specific field. This study has been able to assess the students only in reading, writing, grammar and vocabulary. Due to a large and scattered sample, the researcher was constrained not to test the listening and speaking skills of the respondents. This study aims at collecting data about the ESP needs of undergraduate students in 2008-2009 Academic Year. By comparing the results of students in each skill and the desired competence level of the items, this study, also aims at examining whether or not there is a need for improvement in those skills. Rodgers (1969 as cited in Hutchinson and Waters,1987) in Nese Ekici,2003 expresses that developments in educational psychology has contributed to the rise of ESP by emphasising the central importance of the learners and their attitudes to learning. Learners have different needs and interests, which has an important influence on their motivation to learn and therefore on the effectiveness of their learning. To get an idea about students English language skills and to see whether there was any discrepancy between their actual language skills and desired skills constituted an important dimension of the study. The foci of this study were both the target needs and learning needs for the English curriculum which is implemented during the undergraduate program. This needs assessment study will be useful in improving the already existing curriculum or designing a new needs-based curriculum and choosing more appropriate curricular elements for the undergraduate students at Amravati University Necessity for syllabus development A planned approach to the teaching-learning process can go a long way it making a course effective and relevant. However, as it is seen as something very complicated , many a times the content of the text books available for the course take the place of the syllabus. There are very strong grounds to support the need for a systematic syllabus development process, the most important of them are: First, right from the onset of the course the teacher understands the ultimate objective of the course as a result of the planned process. This gives an opportunity to the teacher to interrelate and integrate all the elements. This in turn ensures better chances for the syllabus meeting its learning objectives. Secondly, a planned approach enables better selection of teaching materials and aids. The class delivery is better planned and oriented towards the end result. Finally, this syllabus development process leads to improvement of language education. The teacher plans, structures, selects, organises the teaching content in accordance with the learning objectives. Both the learner and the teacher are well aware of the outcome desired and both work in coordination to achieve the common goal. The syllabus theory has not found wide application in ELT practice yet and has often been ignored by applied linguists. However, the application of this theory could be very beneficial for the whole ELT process improvement. This research is an attempt to bring in the application of syllabus development process for SGBAUs language courses. 1.3.1 Research Questions The purpose of the study was to conduct a needs assessment revealing the language skills  of Undergraduate students. The following are the research questions this study sought to address: What is the present language proficiency level of students of under-graduate courses? Is the present curriculum able to meet the language needs of the students? Are their gaps between the desired and actual performance of the students ? Is there a difference in the language competency of students across different streams- Arts, Commerce and Science? Is there a difference in the language competency of students from first year of their undergraduate course to the third and final year? Does a co-relation exist between the students medium of instruction in school and present performance? Are there any specified learning outcomes of the language courses offered by SGBAU? Is a post-course analysis done to match the desired and achieved proficiency levels? Is there any mechanism in place to ensure uniformity of delivery across all colleges under SGBAU? What is the present process for syllabus designing? (More questions to be added) 1.4 Significance of the Study A needs assessment study is usually carried out for different purposes states Richards, 2001(cited in Ekici Nese, 2003). Understanding the learners problems, assessing whether the present syllabus adequately addresses those problems of the learner, identifying what skills the learners need in order to perform a specific role, analysing if a change in approach and strategy is required and identifying the gap, if any, in what the students are able to do and what they need to be able to do are the main reasons for needs assessments to be conducted. Identifying what the under- graduate students are able to do and what they need to be able to do is the main concern of this study. Smith (1989, cited in Ekici Nese, 2003) 12 mentions the concept of severity of needs. As all needs are not of equal importance, severity or importance of the need is used as a main criterion for prioritizing the needs, Smith, 1989 (cited in Ekici Nese, 2003). There are some needs which are of great necessity and thus require foremost attention. This study also aims at prioritizing such needs. The findings of the needs assessment in this study will be made use of in order to recommend changes in the existing curriculum in case such a need is identified according to the data collected from the students. Based on the democratic philosophy, information is gathered about the learning most desired by those groups and the gap between the desired performance from the students and what they are actually doing will reflect the discrepancy philosophy. Hopefully, su ggestions regarding the appropriate curriculum for undergraduate programs will be put forward. 1.5 Terms Frequently Used Clarification of the terms which will frequently be used and constitute the backbone of the study  is essential. To prevent misunderstanding or misinterpretation, some of the terms have been explained here. Need: Need is the difference between what a learner can presently do in a language and what he or she should be able to do. Needs Assessment: A needs assessment is a systematic set of procedures undertaken for the purpose of setting priorities and making decisions about program or organizational improvement and allocation of resources. It is a systematic process for documenting relevant needs (Reviere, 1996). ESP (English for Specific Purposes): It is an approach to language learning, which is based on learner need. The foundations of all ESP are the simple question: Why does this learner need to learn a foreign language? (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987). Target Needs: Target needs refer to what the learner needs to do in the target situation (work domain) (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987). Learning Needs: They refer to what the learner needs to do in order to learn. They show how the learner learns the language items. It refers to the skills that he or she uses (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987). ENL: English as a Native Language ESL: English as a Second Language EFL: English as a Foreign Language Syllabus: Curriculum: (more terms shall be added if needed)

The Independent Record Labels of the 1950’s and 1960’s

The Independent Record Labels of the 1950’s and 1960’s History of Music Production Eric Eller Throughout the 1950’s and 1960’s, a wave of new musical movements by independent record labels and new artists emerged in the United States. This movement is captured in the stories of those label creators and owners, and in the turbulent journey through their successes and failures. The first emergence was fueled by multiple factors: competitive economic circumstances, up-and-coming local musical talent in conjunction with the independent labels and studio owners, and the commercially viable musical interest and curiosity of consumers in these local artists. An article poses another causative factor that makes sense: when rock and roll was a new genre, major labels such as Columbia, Capitol, and RCA were â€Å"reluctant to sign these acts; thus, sprung forth the independent label† (Jacobs). Grassroots production and engineering enthusiasts were given an in-road into the music industry and were able to gain their own clients in independent local artists. Independent label owners in connection with this local talent generate publicity and profit. One such example is found with the duo of Polish immigrant brothers named Leonard and Phil Chess, also known as the Blues Brothers. The Chess brothers bought sole ownership of Aristocrat Records in 1950, and change its name to Chess Records. Leonard specialized as the hands-on producer for the label, while Phil focused on finances and marketing. They found a signature sound in the electric guitar of Muddy Waters. Besides Muddy Watters, their rostser included Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley, Willie Nixon, Etta James, Little Walter, Billie Stewart, and Howlin’ Wolf. ’ Chapter Three of the History of Music Production Binder states: Chess Records flourished in those early days of both Rhythm and Blues and independent record companies†¦Chess, along with Atlantic, Aladdin, Specialty, Imperial, Modern and King were giving the public music that they couldn’t get from the larger, established, â€Å"major† record companies. (page 47) This quote explains that there was a multitude of independent record labels that emerged around this time. How did all of these homemade labels gain bearings? They were allowed financial success because there was actually a public commercial market to invest in their musical productions. In other words, there was a significant number of people were looking for a different sound and these labels could produce local talents that had the sound these consumers were looking and listening for. One of the independent labels mentioned in the quote above is Imperial Records. Founded in the late 40’s by Lew Chudd, its roster include Ricky Nelson and Fats Nelson. Chudd ended up purchasing Aladdin and Minit Records in 1960. In ’63, however, Domino and Nelson left for other labels and Chudd sold Imperial to Liberty Records. Liberty found success with the Imperial artists Irma Thomas, Johnny Rivers, Jacky DeShanon, and Cher. (‘Independent Record Labels’) During the time known as the ‘British Invasion’ which I go into depth about later in the paper, Liberty’s recordings were distributed by EMI in Britain. In turn, EMI licensed its artists The Hollies, Billy J. Thomas and The Sakotas, and others to be released on Imperial. By 1969, Imperial records had been phased out and all artists were absorbed by Liberty. Today EMI owns the Imperial Records Catalog. The Memphis Recording Service, which became Sun Studios, was owned by Sam Philips. Philips was a local blues and country disc jockey whose business had been mainly comprised of recording local blues and country musicians and some weddings. He started by recording artists who were signed under other independent labels, and eventually decided to start his own record label. He called it Sun Records. The facilities at Sun started humbly and could certainly be considered ‘independent. ’ It was a rectangular room with no acoustical treatment, and a control room with a used five channel presto mixer, a presto 6-N lathe and one loudspeaker. Philips would take a while to realize that a huge prospect was about to enter his life and studio. Elvis Presley, a young truck driver, had come in to record two songs at a cost of $8 as a birthday present for his mother. Philips was actually out of the office so his secretary Marion Keisker recorded Presley. Foreseeing talent, Keisker put aside a copy of the acetate master. Keisker continued to advocate to Philips the idea of investing in Presley’s commercially promising musical potential. Philips eventually agreed to give Presley a try and matched him up with local guitarist Scotty Moore and bass player Bill Black. This group became quite successful, and together, under the direction of Philips, helped to influence and redefine the ‘rockabilly’ genre of music at the time. It shows Sun’s success that by ’61, Phillips was able to buy a Presto 900-P recorder. Elvis Presley’s presence at the label allowed Philips to once again upgrade his system, this time opting for a Tube 76-D broadcast console and two new Ampex 350 tape recorders. The growing sophistication of his studio rig is a testimony to the success that he accomplished with such sensations as Presley. He delayed one tape head slightly in relation to the other, which made the signature â€Å"Sun Sound. † While Philips did find success for a while with artist Elvis Presley; Elvis’ popularity outgrew the facilities and financial capabilities of Sun Records by 1956. Elvis also had a new manager who pushed him to sign to a major label (HMP, Chapter III, pg. 52). RCA approached Sam Philips about Presley’s contract, and since Philips knew that he wouldn’t be able to afford renewing contract with Elvis nice their current agreement had expired, Philips agreed to sell Elvis Presley’s contact for $35,000. Philips’ story is common in this time for smaller independent record labels: they find some success that eventually dissipates due to the influence of more established labels. Philips’ relationship with Elvis Presley exemplifies the opportunity that was mutually available to local grass-roots artist and label/studio owners at this time of budding musical movements such as soul, R&B, rock and roll, and jazz. Rudy Van Gelder is yet another independent producer/engineer that was able to successfully make his own record label from the ground up. Van Gelder started as an optometrist and radio broadcaster, and became a pioneer in jazz recordings. His early works were recorded in his parents’ living room in New Jersey. He was known for his â€Å"meticulous and experimental recording techniques. While his recording began in his private home, Van Gelder built his own studio. Over his fifty-plus year career, Van Gelder collaborated with such prominent Jazz labels as Verve, Impulse, Prestige, Venus, Blue Note, and more. As an optometrist who started recording and broadcasting from his house, his 10,000+ repertoire of recording is a testimony to his success as an independent producer/label. While these examples do show the possibility for financial success as an independent label owner in these times, there were definitely obstacles to their success. One major trend that happened to act as an obstacle in this new market for independent labels was the absorption of independent record companies by larger labels, that had even begun as independent record labels them selves. For example, Atlantic Records was an independent record label, yet it gained such a holding that it began to buy out smaller independent labels. Atlantic Records acquired Spark Record Company in 1955†¦ â€Å"Due to Tom Dowd’s technical prowess, (Atlantic Records) was one of the first independent labels to record in stereo† (HMP, Ch III). Atlantic was formed in 1947 by Ahmet Ertegun, son of a Turkish ambassador, and Herb Abramson. It started out as a Rhythm and Blues and Jazz label. In the early 1950’s Jerry Wexler and Nesuhi Ertegun joined the team. Nesuhi started producing the jazz division in 1955 and signed the likes of Charles Mingus and John Coltrane (Jacobs, Pat). Atlantic went on to become a â€Å"powerhouse† in the 1960’s, signing such mainstream artists as Sonny and Cher. It was successful enough to also branch off into other sub-labels like Atco. From 1960-1968, Atlantic, spear-headed by Jerry Wexler, had a distribution deal with the Memphis record company that became Stax records (Jacobs). Stax Studios is another similar yet unique case in this time and movement. The independent studio Stax was formed by Jim Stewart, along with the investment of his sister Estelle Axton. It began in an old storehouse, but they later moved it to an old movie theatre, which they converted to a control room, studio space, and small record store. A young pianist, Booker T. Jones, lived nearby and began frequenting the studio. He hooked up with other local musicians Steve Cropper, Duck Dunn, and Al Jackson. Together, this group became known as Booker T. and the M. G. ’s, and they made up the backbone of the new Stax sound (HMP Ch. III). Stax had developed a distinctive soulful sound and Booker T. and the M. G. ’s had amazing chemistry as a band. Due to these factors, Atlantic soon took notice and began sending their head engineer, Tom Dowd, along with their own artists, to record at Stax. In 1962, Johnny Jackson recorded a single at Stax. When the session failed miserably, they used the last thirty minutes f the session time to record Jackson’s driver, a young Otis Redding. The song that they recorded reached the charts in April of 1963, and Otis Redding came back to record an even bigger hit in September of that same year. The eruption of these popular hits by new, poignant artists acted as a positive feedback loop for Stax business. Having successfully marketed Booker T. and the M. G . ’s, the Mar-Keys, Carla Thomas and Otis Redding, Stax attracted the attention of even more talents, through Atlantic and also on their own, independently. These new acts included Sam and Dave and Wilson Picket, Willian Bell, Eddie Floyd and the producer/writer duo David Porter and Isaac Hayes. Stax Records was obviously thriving at this time. In 1965, Stewart hired Al Bell as national sales director for Stax. With the rate of change and competition in the music industry at this time, however, things couldn’t stay the same for long. And along with the opportunities for independent owners came the means and motivation for exploitation of the underdog by more powerful enterprises. In 1965, Jerry Wexler told Stewart that Atlantic might be sold, and in order to save Stax, they should finalize their distribution agreement through a written contract. Stewart failed to consult a lawyer or examine the fine print of the contract, and essentially signed away the ownership of all Stax masters. Here is an evident example of the cutthroat commercialism and competition that began to take over the music industry in this time of change and commercial viability. Atlantic had sneakily tricked Stax into signing away ownership. Producers and Business Owners in this changing, flourishing and cutthroat industry had to be on top of their game, or they could be exploited and manipulated. The same can be said for artists, who were often exploited, paid less than they deserved and far less in comparison with the cut that producers and label representatives were taking from the profit that they accrued from these artists. In addition to the hardship caused by careless contractual practices, Stax lost Otis Redding in a plane crash, his masters belonged to Atlantic. Instead of giving in to Atlantic, Stewart sold the label Stax to Gulf and Western which went on the release hits by Booker T. and the M. G. ’s and Isaac Hayes. Today Stax masters prior to 1968 are owned by Atlantic Records. Masters recorded after the split between Stax and Atlantic are now owned by Fantasy Records. Leiber and Stoller of Spark Record Company are a good example of how this new business model could work to the advantage of the underdog. Leiber and Stoller worked as independent producers for Atlantic, meaning they were able to make records for other labels also, although Atlantic still proved to be the most profitable for them. A significant amount of Atlantic Records’ pre-production from the late 1950’s took place in the Brill Building. The owners of this building rented out the spaces to music publishers, because there were little other options due to the increasing economic depression. As a result, this building was filled with 165 music related businesses by 1962. It should be noted here that detrimental economic circumstances inadvertently created a beneficial opportunity for independent music producers, label representatives, engineers, and artists. The Brill Building is, in fact, an example of vertical integration- quite literally. The lay-out of the establishment allowed for personnel to go to one floor, write a song or pitch it to an array of publishers, go to another floor and have it arranged and notated for a small fee, book an hour long session and hire local studio musicians on site. This unique and efficient set up gave artists and producer’s the ability to cut a demo, then show it to recording companies, publishers, and other artists in and around the building. In the late 1950’s, Atlantic attained success in the cross over record market, meaning Rhythm and Blues music performed by African Americans that appealed to the white music-buyer. Atlantic Records provided the white consumer with authentic R&B recording artists such as The Drifters, Clyde McPhatter, Joe Turner, Ruth Brown, Ray Charles, the Coasters, Aretha Franklin, Ray Charles, Led Zeppelin, Crosby, Stills and Nash, and more. It is one of the few labels to have notable success throughout this time period still operating today, and can be considered a success story for the independent record label model of the 1950’s and 1960’s. One temporary independent success that didn’t last nearly as long was Vee-Jay records, owned by a black female DJ named Vivian Carter and her husband, James Bracken. In 1953 the label opened in Gary, Indiana, and it soon became a powerhouse of major R+B. Before Motown, it was the biggest black-owned label of its time (Independent Record Labels). Its roster included John Lee Haooker, Little Richard, and the Four Seasons. They also released early Beatles material before they became massively popular in the United States. Once the British Invasion arrived, these Beatles recordings were bought out almost instantly. In early 1964, 2. 6 million Beatles singles were sold in a month. Eventually, however, this label met with financial difficulties, and in August of 1966 Vee-Jay records filed for bankruptcy (‘Independent Record Labels’). Another prime example of a successful independent record label is found in Motown Records. While Motown did eventually sign and produce some of the soul legends whose popularity still holds up today, the label’s creator, Berry Gordy, did not find success instantly; he came up against a lot of failure along the way as well. When Berry Gordy left the military in 1953 he launched a jazz record store called the 3-D Record Mart. It was financed by his family, who owned a number of businesses. By 1955 this record store had failed. He searched for success elsewhere, and eventually found it as a song-writer. His first success came with the tune â€Å"Reet Petite†, performed by Jackie Wilson. The song landed him 1,000 dollars. In addition, over the next two years, he wrote four more hits performed by Jackie Wilson. Encouraged by these successes, Gordy decided to pursue producing. He had an uncanny ability to sniff out talent, and this allowed him to find success as a producer. In 1959, He discovered The Miracles, which included Smokey Robinson, at a talent show, and pitched a business relationship to them which would benefit him in the future. He borrowed $800 from his family to start his own record company that he called ‘Tamla’. Marv Johnson’s â€Å"You Got What It Takes† was released through Tamla that same year, and was the first big break experienced by Berry Gordy. It was such a success, in fact, that it placed within the top ten. By the late 1950’s, Detroit was one of, if not the last city that did not have its own strong independent record company. This allowed for Gordy’s success because he was in the right place at the right time, and was able to provide a production outlet for the local talents of the area. The third Miracles recording was released in conjunction with another label that Berry Gordy had formed on the side, called Motown. In 1960, Gordy commandeered the contract of a young singer from Washington DC by the name of Marvin Gaye. Marvin Gaye did have one moderately successful release in the 60’s, but really hit it big later in the 1970’s. Through a Miracles connection, Steveland Morris auditioned for Motown and impressed Gordy. Gordy signed the youngster and renamed him â€Å"Little Stevie Wonder†. In 1963, Stevie Wonder’s hit â€Å"Fingertips Part II† made it to the number one spot on the pop charts. Berry Gordy did indeed have a knack for finding talent and selling records. In fact, â€Å"Gordy turned Motown into the most profitable black entertainment company in the country† (HMP, Ch. III p. 59). The History of Music class binder attributes this in part to Gordy’s frugal business practices: the in-house writers, artists, and producers that he hired were paid on salaries that were deducted from their royalties for songs. In addition, they were paid a flat-rate on a weekly basis, and were required to be on call. Employees were only allowed to view the accounting records twice annually, and the RIAA was never allowed to view them. For this reason, Motown may have received less awards than they would have, because the real rates of sale where not publicly disclosed. Yet despite all these circumstances, Motown maintained a family-oriented reputation and attracted producers, song-writers and artists from all over. There was an atmosphere of camaraderie and healthy competition in Gordy’s studio. Gordy had a good eye for talented producers and artists alike, quickly adopting Smokey Robinson to his team. Under Gordy’s label, Smokey Robinson was uniquely permitted to produce his own work and other artists like Mary Wells, The Temptations, and The Miracles. Motown accumulated a number of artists that put out continuous hit songs, including a run of five Supremes hits in a row: â€Å"Where Did Our Love Go,† â€Å"Baby Love,† â€Å"Come See About Me,† â€Å"Stop! In the Name of Love,† and â€Å"Back In My Arms Again. † The Robinson produced â€Å"My Guy† by Mary Wells in 1964, which also reached the #1 spot is a good example of the burgeoning mid 60’s Motown sound. This string of successes gave Motown the names â€Å"Hitsville, USA. The Motown Sound, The Sound of Young America† which was painted over the headquarters entrance. In 1966, Motown produced fourteen songs that ranked in the Top Ten. In 1967, thirteen songs reached that status. And in 1968, ten singles reached that status. As you can see, while they did continue to rank in the Top Ten, the degree of their success decreased every year. This is yet another testimony to the fact that the success of these indie labels was rarely long-lasting. Another example of an individual producer who found a pathway in to the music industry during the 1950’s and 1960’s is the eccentric engineer, Harvey Philip Spector. Hoping to break into the music business, Spector booked a session at a local independent recording business called Star Studios. He raised $40 for the session and the price of tape, aided by his mother and several friends to pay for this session and the tape to record onto. He produced and performed on all instruments for the single â€Å"Don’t Worry My Little Pet,† an original composition. Spector and his friends, who were investors in his venture, formed the musical group â€Å"The Teddy Bears. † They appeared on American Bandstand. They performed another of his original songs, â€Å"To Know Him Is To Love Him,† which sold more than a million copies in two months. Phil Spector and his band The Teddy Bears signed on with Imperial Records, but they encountered problems while there. This is because Spector was used to being his own boss and producer, and now he wasn’t allowed to record at Goldstar, use stacked harmonies, or control production. After unsuccessful releases with Imperial, Spector broke up the Teddy Bears and asked Lester Sill and Lee Hazelwood, two established producers/label owners, to show him the ropes of the business. Spector actually moved in with Sill and his family. Sill taught Spector how successful Rock and Roll Records were made (HMP, Ch. III). He was then given the task of recruiting new artists to the label, yet his choices didn’t prove to be beneficial investments. Spector became frustrated and asked Sill to disclose his contacts from Stax. Spector then moved to New York City and began working for Lieber and Stoller in 1960. There at Lieber and Stoller’s studio, Spector started out as a studio guitarist, then worked as a producer for Ray Peterson and Curtis Lee, two artists on the label. Both of these artists’ releases were received very well, yet Spector faced failure with the public reaction to the release of the original â€Å"Twist and Shout,† which was performed by Top Note. Berns was outraged with Spector’s approach to â€Å"Twist and Shout,† and took this tune, reproduced it, and found success with it. Spector took this incident to heart and decided to leave Atlantic and return to the West Coast. There on the West Coast, he then formed the Phelles Label in Hollywood with Lester Sill, his former boss. Spector developed a unique sound that he called â€Å"impressionistic sound productions. † To the rest of the world, it became known as the â€Å"Wall of Sound. † It was characterized by abundant use of reverberation and un-isolated instrument overdubbing. Spector hated the concept of isolation and focused on creating a sonic â€Å"wall† by fixating all of the instrumental pieces, objects and people in the room and also by recording solely in mono. He then fed those un-isolated microphone tracks into different echo and reverb chambers. He was so extreme and specific in his endeavors that he wouldn’t even allow any of the people in his recordings to leave the room to go to the bathroom, or to even move around at all, claiming that it disturbed his perfect wall of sound: the relationship between the sound waves with all the surfaces and angles in the recording space. Within three years, he had put out twenty hits in a row, including â€Å"Da Doo Ron Ron,† â€Å"The Best Part of Breaking Up,† and others. In 1964, however, Spector’s success was cut prematurely by the British Invasion. This British Invasion, or the ‘Second British Invasion’, as it could be ironically considered, was marked by the Beatles’ victorious entrance into New York in February of 1964. This event symbolized the success of the Beatles in the eyes of the American public and also paved the way for British musical talent in America. The relationship between American and British musicians and fans is quite interesting, because there are many parallels between the two. â€Å"Like their transatlantic counterparts in the 1950s, British youth heard their future in the frantic beats and suggestive lyrics of American rock and roll. † (‘British Invasion’). While the Beatles were trying to mimic the American pop style of the time, they inadvertently created their own style that reflected back to American audiences who became obsessed. With the advent of the Beatles’ more â€Å"sophisticated,† pop/rock sound, Phil Spector and other pop/rock producers faced a competition as the British wave swept over their consumer audience. Spector fought to prolong his success, but with his release of an Ike and Tina Turner record in 1966 that only reached number eighty-eight on the charts, he was humiliated and decided to retire from the industry, although he would make a minor comeback and a flop or two) in later decades. Spector is an example of an independent record label whose niche was filled up by another entity. In England during the 1950s and 1960s, EMI, Philips, and Decca towered over small independent record labels as a trio of major record companies. As a result, it was quite difficult for the independent labels to become esta blished. Still, many producers and musical artists set up their own independent labels. These producers included Joe Meek with his release of Triumph, Andrew Oldham (Immediate), and Larry Page with Page One. One independent label that was able to thrive in this atmosphere and continued to grow and develop clientele was Chrysalis Records, the joint project of Chris Wright and Terry Ellis. Rock stars that launched their own record labels during this time included The Beatles with Apple Records, Elton John with Rocket, and The Rolling Stones with Rolling Stones Records. Unfortunately, these ventures did not succeed commercially on their own, while some were absorbed by the major labels. Through the examples of Stax, Atlantic, Sun, Motown, Phil Spector, Vee Jay, and all the other players involved in this unique time in music history, we can see the complex combination of positive opportunities and negative repercussions of taking a chance with a label, with an artist, a producer, and/or a song. It is quite clear that all of these independent record label starters of the 1950’s and 1960’s faced a lot of competition and conflict in their attempt to make it, despite the unique opportunity for success that they were granted in the circumstances of the music industry, market, and economy of that time. It seems that it took a while for the more major labels to catch on to the commercial viability of rock and roll and other new types of music, and yet at the same time, independent record labels who already had a holding on this new market had found success. References Jacobs, Pat. â€Å"Independent Record Labels of the 50’s and 60’s†. Rewind the Fifties, 1997. < http://www. loti. com/sixties_music/sixties_indie_labels. htm>] Theakston, Scott. History of Music Production, Course Binder. Chapter III. 2010. Rogan, Johnny. â€Å"Introduction† in the Guinness Who's Who of Indie and New Wave Music, Guinness Publishing, 1992. ISBN 0-85112-579-4

Maruti Suzuki Company Profile

Organisational Profile of Maruti Suzuki About us – Maruti Suzuki India Limited (MSIL, formerly named Maruti Udyog Limited) is a subsidiary of Suzuki Motor Corporation, Japan. MSIL has been the leader of the Indian car market for over two and a half decades. The company's two manufacturing facilities are located at Gurgaon and Manesar, south of New Delhi. Recently, the company has announced a further investment of Rs 1,700 crore (Rs 17 billion) for enhancing the production capacity by 250,000 units annually. The CAGR over two years is 27% for net sales.Nature of the Company Ownership – Maruti Suzuki India Ltd. Is a public limited company and is listed on Bombay Stock Exchange Limited and National Stock Exchange Limited. SMC is the majority shareholder with 54. 21% equity stake in the company. Shareholding Pattern of the Company – Our Vision – The Leader in the Indian Automobile Industry, Creating Customer Delight and Shareholder's Wealth; A pride of India. We believe OUR CORE VALUES drive us in every endeavor. * CUSTOMER OBSESSION * FAST, FLEXIBLE & FIRST MOVER INNOVATION & CREATIVITY * NETWORKING & PARTNERSHIP * OPENNESS & LEARNING Quest Unlimited – â€Å"After 25 years of leadership, what next? † It is not for us to predict the future. Other than to say that the Quest is unceasing. We continue on our journey, uninterrupted and without distraction, avoiding complacence and flamboyance, to explore newer frontiers, strengthen and expand partnerships, connect with the layers and layers of a still larger world and embed ourselves deeper in the lives of people. Success Mantra –Success in this business, we said, asks for â€Å"Stamina and Patience, Order and Creativity, Skills hard and soft and it needs all of them to Co-exist in the Right Proportion. † We follow the natural low of 3G – Give is the route to Get and Grow. CORPORATE INFORMATION – Board Of Directors – Mr. R. C. Bhargava, Chairman Mr. Shinzo Nakanishi, Managing Director and CEO Mr. Tsuneo Ohashi, Director and Managing Executive Officer (Production) Mr. Shuji Oishi, Director & Managing Executive Officer (Marketing & Sales) Mr. Keiichi Asai, Director & Managing Executive Officer (Engineering) Mr.Manvinder Singh Banga, Director Mr. Amal Ganguli, Director Mr. D. S. Brar, Director Mr. Osamu Suzuki, Director Ms. Pallavi Shroff, Director Mr. Kenichi Ayukawa, Director Contact us – Head Office Maruti Suzuki India Limited 1, Nelson Mandela Road, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi-110070 Board no. 46781000 Fax : 46150275-76| Gurgaon Plant Maruti Suzuki India Ltd. Gurgaon Plant Old Palam Gurgaon Road Gurgaon – 122015 Tel: (0124)   2346721| Manesar Plant Maruti Suzuki India Ltd. Manesar Plant Plot no. 1, Phase 3A IMT Manesar Gurgaon – 122051. | BUSINESS HIGHLIGHTS Company’s Snapshot – Above 50% market share in passenger cars and van type Vehicles for all 25 years * O ver 7 million cars produced & sold cumulatively * Over 500,000 cars exported cumulatively * 1st in customer satisfaction for 9 consecutive years – J D power CSI survey * One million units/ annum total capacity * Gurgaon facility – capacity 700,000 units/ annum * Manesar facility – capacity 300,000 units/annum * Over 7,600 employees on its rolls. * 681 sales outlets in 454 cities * 2767 workshops in 1314 cities * 315 pre-owned car outlets in 181 cities Recent AWARDS –India's Most Trusted Brand 2009: The Economic times Maruti Suzuki has been ranked Indian most Trusted Brand by India's leading Business newspaper The Economic Times. This prestigious accolade comes alongside company's 10-year long pole position in customer satisfaction surveys. 2000-2009: JD Power Customer Satisfaction Index Award – India The biggest draw for the past ten years has been the award for highest recognition by the customer. In 2009-10 again, for the tenth consecutive ti me, Maruti Suzuki ranked the highest in JD Power Customer Satisfaction Index.Other Accolades During 2009-10, the company, its products and services received reputed awards and accolades instituted by independent expert groups, media houses and research agencies. These include: * Ritz – Hatchback of the year * Ritz – Car of the year * Maruti Suzuki as the ‘Manufacturer of the year' by CNBC Overdrive * In the World's Most Reputed Company Survey 2009, Maruti Suzuki ranked third amongst global car companies and 49 amongst all companies across all segments. * ICSI National Award for Excellence in Corporate Governance' Products –The company has a portfolio of 13 brands and over 150 variants across Maruti 800, Omni, international brands Alto, A-star, WagonR, Swift, Ritz and Estilo, off-roader Gypsy, SUV Grand Vitara, sedans SX4 and Swift DZire and the newest entrant Eeco. Quality – A product of poor quality requires repeated inspections, entails wastage in terms of repairs and replacements. â€Å"Do it right first time†, is the principle followed to avoid wastage. To ensure quality, robots were devices and deployed especially where they reduced worker fatigue and were critical in delivering consistent quality.With consistent improvements in the plant the company was able to manufacture over 600,000 vehicles in 2006-07 with an installed capacity of just 350,000 vehicles per year. Production Management System (PMS) – PMS is derived from the basic Japanese principles of 5S, 3G and 3K. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) concepts – Maruti Suzuki has adopted a CSR policy, which serves as a guiding tool for the management and the employees in steering Maruti Suzuki towards long term sustained growth in harmony along with the interests of the stakeholder.The role of the CSR department is to professionalize CSR activities in Maruti Suzuki and strengthen the mechanisms involving the activities. Significant efforts have been taken to contribute to society at large, through its corporate activities, especially in the areas of Road Safety and Vocational Training. Maruti Suzuki has set up dedicated teams with requisite expertise to steer the social projects. Maruti Driving School – National Road Safety Mission – Driving its message for road safety, Maruti Suzuki India Limited, unveiled a National Road Safety Mission| programme in December 2008.Under the programme, the company will * Train 500,000 people in safe driving in the next 3 years across India| | * While utilizing the existing 4 Institutes of Driving Training and Research (IDTR) in Delhi, Dehradun and Vadodara and 61 Maruti Driving Schools across the country the company will enter into partnerships with state governments for more IDTRs and with its dealers for more Maruti Driving Schools * Of the 500,000 people to be trained, at least 100,000 will be people from underprivileged section of society, who are keen to take driving as a profession. The company will continue to support to government and industry in their efforts for road safety| Sustainability Approach – In line with the global environmental concerns, we have identified the following focus areas with regards to the protection of environment and resources for the future generations. * CO2 emission reduction * Energy Conservation * Water Conservation * Solid Waste Management * Material Usage and Weight reduction * Fuel EfficiencyEnvironment Friendly –Fuel Efficient K-series Engine Technology Maruti Suzuki recognizes global warming and climate changes as global issues, the effects of which are of concern both for the environment and human life. The challenge faced by the society is how to meet the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Maruti Suzuki strongly believes that an investment in environment friendly products and manufacturing facilities is in the best interest of t he society as well as the business.The last 25 years of our journey has reinforced the belief that environment friendly initiatives make products more acceptable to customers and help Maruti Suzuki grow profitably in every sphere. Since Maruti Suzuki started operations, conserving environment and natural resources has been an integral part of our systems and processes. The concept of â€Å"Reduce, Reuse, Recycle† (3R's) has been our driving principle.This three pronged strategy or the 3 R's has been promoted in all our manufacturing facilities, supply chain and logistics operations. Maruti Suzuki also follows the Philosophy of â€Å"Smaller, Fewer, Lighter, Shorter and Neater†. This Philosophy has helped Maruti Suzuki in optimal utilization of resources and cost savings. True Value Outlet – Maruti True Value is India No. 1 organized pre-owned car brand. The company's service businesses include sale and purchase of pre-owned cars (True Value) and Maruti Finance.U nique advantages   Ã¢â‚¬â€œ * India's largest certified used car dealer network * 340 outlets in 197 cities and growing * All car related services under one roof * professionally trained manpower * Complete peace of mind| | These initiatives, besides providing total mobility solutions to customers in a convenient and transparent manner, have helped improve economic viability of the company's dealerships Exports – What do countries like Poland, Finland, Iceland, Malta, Switzerland, The Netherlands, Algeria and Italy have in common?Maruti Suzuki cars ply on the roads of these countries, and what's more, they are soon becoming the fastest selling cars in those lands. Maruti Suzuki exports, entry-level models across the globe to over 100 countries and the focus has been to identify new markets. Some important markets include Latin America, Africa and South East Asia. The Company clocked its highest ever exports at 70,023 units, a growth of 32. 1% in the Fiscal Year 2008-09.

People in a zombie apocalypse Free Essay Example, 1000 words

The second policy that Rick can use is the new refugee policy. Under this policy, those suspected to have been affected are stripped and searched to the skin to ensure that they are properly searched. The search ensures that those affected are separated from those not affected being allowed into a new nation as refugees. New people will be required to always keep their hair short in order to allow for easier inspection of injuries in the head. Those injured are separated from the population during the incubation period of the disease. Having short hair also marks them as new people and this allows other people to be always careful while dealing with them until they are proved to be well. The third strategy of containing the effect of zombie apocalypse is by ensuring that those not affected by the virus are in secure places and they should stay there. Regardless of whether those not affected stay or go, they need to quickly get themselves safer places. In this case, ‘safe’ depends on the capabilities of the zombies to reach the place. We will write a custom essay sample on People in a zombie apocalypse or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now Therefore, there are possibilities of getting to safer places such as cases where the zombies tend to have very poor intelligence and they wander aimlessly (Eaton). Therefore, someone can get to a safer area, particularly a very remote area. In this case, ‘very remote’ would mean that the place is like the farmhouse in Montana, and not a personal beach house. Being in such a place would guarantee a high level of safety for any person running away from the zombies. In another case, if the zombies cannot swim or move through water by other means, then a small island will be the safest place to be. If none of the discussed options is accessible or applicable, then it is advisable to get to the top of the tallest building within your reach. In case the zombies can climb to the top of the building, then the person can look for something that has sheer glass walls. If they have the ability to solve such problems with ease, then the person can consider blocking stairwells with rubble or by shutting the welding elevator doors (Kino). Just in case the place has no tall buildings around, then it is advisable to look for something with very strong walls, and neither doors nor windows can be used for ingress. It does not always have to be a house because houses tend to have many entrances and exits. The best places to consider are a jail, an industrial warehouse, or a store. They have few entrances since they have to be locked at night.